Journal of Transportation Research

Journal of Transportation Research

Sustainable Stabilization of Roadbed Clay Soils Using Geopolymer Derived from Waste Glass Powder and Calcium Carbide Residue: An Environmentally Friendly Approach

Document Type : Original Article

Authors
Seyed Ali Mortazavi Ravari 1
Seyed Morteza Marandi 2
1 Ph.D., Grad., Civil Engineering Department, Shahid Bahonar University of Kerman, Kerman, Iran.
2 Professor of Civil Engineering Department, Shahid Bahonar University of Kerman, Kerman, Iran.
10.22034/tri.2026.570391.3429
Abstract
In recent years, the use of industrial and municipal waste materials in stabilizing problematic soils—particularly clayey roadbeds—has emerged as a sustainable and environmentally friendly strategy in geotechnical engineering. Clay soils exhibit unfavorable characteristics such as high swell potential, significant settlement, low bearing capacity, and moisture sensitivity, posing serious challenges to sustainable road construction. Conventional soil stabilization methods, including the use of cement and lime, are not only costly but also contribute significantly to energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions—especially CO₂—making them less compatible with sustainable development principles. In this context, recycling solid urban and industrial wastes serves not only as an intelligent alternative to traditional binders but also as an effective step toward reducing waste volume, conserving natural resources, and advancing the circular economy. This study investigates the application of a geopolymer system combining waste glass powder (WGP)—a silica-rich urban waste—and calcium carbide residue (CCR)—a by-product of acetylene gas production—for the stabilization of clay soil. A series of geotechnical tests and microstructural analyses were conducted to evaluate the performance of this composite. Results showed that soil samples stabilized with 15% WGP and 7% CCR exhibited the highest improvement in mechanical properties. Microscopic analyses confirmed the formation of geopolymeric gels (C-A-S-H and C-S-H), which enhanced structural densification and reduced effective porosity. This research holds dual significance: from both a technical-mechanical and an environmental-waste management perspective, as the synergistic use of these two wastes simultaneously addresses geotechnical challenges of soft clay stabilization and environmental concerns related to waste disposal. Therefore, the findings of this study can pave the way for broader utilization of waste-derived materials in sustainable, low-carbon infrastructure projects.
Keywords
Roadbed clay
Waste glass powder
Calcium carbide residue
Geopolymer
Waste materials
Subjects
-Aswad, M. F., Al-Gharbawi, A. S., Fattah, M. Y., Mustfa, R. H., & Hameed, H. R. (2024). Improvement of clayey soil characteristics using poly acrylamide geopolymer. Transportation Infrastructure Geotechnology, 11(4), 1673-1690.‏
-Chen, Z., Gao, Y., Wei, W., Lv, Y., & Wu, Z. (2023). Stabilization of Soft Clay by a Low-Calcium Fly Ash Geopolymer. Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, 35(11), 04023398.‏
-Contreras, R. R., Almarza, J., Rincon, L., & Ruiz, C. (2024). Green sodium hydroxide for industrial purposes. A short review. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering, 114972.‏
-Deng, T., Liu, H., Ni, J., Ke, H., Li, L., & Deng, Y. (2025). Pb2+ Leachability in the Cement-Based Solidified/Stabilized Contaminated Clay Under Saline and Alkaline Environments. Soil and Sediment Contamination: An International Journal. 34(2), 276-290.‏
-Diana, W., Ma’rifah, R. A., & Hartono, E. (2025). The Tensile Strength of Marine Sand Using Fly Ash-Based Geopolymer: Influence of Sodium Hydroxide Concentration and Alkaline Activator Ratio. In Journal of Physics: Conference Series­, IOP Publishing.‏Vol. 2989, No. 1, 012038.
-El-Habacha, M., Lagdali, S., Dabagh, A., Mahmoudy, G., Assouani, A., Benjelloun, M., & Zerbet, M. (2024). High efficiency of treated-phengite clay by sodium hydroxide for the Congo red dye adsorption: optimization, cost estimation, and mechanism study. Environmental Research, 259, 119542.‏
-Hosseini, S. E., Tabarsa, A., & Bahman Pour, A. (2022). Experimental study of subgrade soil stabilized with geopolymer based on glass powder and calcium carbide. Road Materials and Pavement Design, 1-16.‏
-Jamalimoghadam, M., & Bahmyari, H. (2023). Freeze–Thaw Characteristics of Slaking Marl Clay Stabilized with a Binder Based on Alkali-Activated Recycled Glass Powder. Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, 35(11), 04023394.‏
-Kavyani, Z., Ghorbanzadeh, N., Etesami, H., & Khalili Rad, M. (2025). Lead Immobilization in Contaminated Soil Through Phosphate Bioprecipitation with Immobilized Bacteria on Biochar Surface. Soil and Sediment Contamination: An International Journal. 1-18.‏
-Matsimbe, J., Dinka, M., Olukanni, D., & Musonda, I. (2022). Geopolymer: A systematic review of methodologies. Materials, 15(19), 6852.‏
-Miraki, H., Shariatmadari, N., Ghadir, P., Jahandari, S., Tao, Z., & Siddique, R. (2022). Clayey soil stabilization using alkali-activated volcanic ash and slag. Journal of Rock Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, 14(2), 576-591.‏
-Premathilaka, K. K. W., Liyanapathirana, D. S., & Leo, C. J. (2026). A Novel Geopolymer-Based Composite Material from Recycled Waste Glass. Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, 38(3), 04025584.‏
-Pu, Y., Sun, Q., Yang, J., Wang, H., Xu, X., Wang, J., & Zhan, M. (2024), "Pollution characteristics and risk assessment of heavy metals in the soil of a municipal solid waste landfill site. Soil and Sediment Contamination: An International Journal. 1-18.‏
-Ramezani, S. J., Toufigh, M. M., & Toufigh, V. (2023). Utilization of glass powder and silica fume in sugarcane bagasse ash-based geopolymer for soil stabilization. Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, 35(4), 04023042.‏
-Siddika, A., Hajimohammadi, A., & Sahajwalla, V. (2022). Stabilization of pores in glass foam by using a modified curing-sintering process: sustainable recycling of automotive vehicles’ waste glass. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 179, 106145.‏
-Silva, A. C. P. D., Rodrigues, K. H. D. P., Nalon, G. H., Pitanga, H. N., Silva, N. A. B., Silva, T. O. D., & Rodrigues, M. H. R. (2025). Mechanical Behavior of Geopolymers Containing Soil and Red Mud Stabilized by Alkali Activation. Buildings, 15(17), 3105.‏
-Tabaroei, A., & Bozorgvar, F. (2025). Mechanical and microstructural enhancement of clayey soils through recycled glass powder stabilization. Scientific Reports, 15(1), 36702.‏
-Wang, D., Sun, Q., Pu, Y., Wang, J., Xu, X., & Zhan, M. (2025). Characteristics and Predictive Analysis of Heavy Metal Pollution in Typical Municipal Solid Waste Landfill Soil. Soil and Sediment Contamination: An International Journal. 1-20
-Wassie, T. A., & Demir, G. (2024). Mechanical Strength and Microstructure of Soft Soil Stabilized with Cement, Lime, and Metakaolin‐Based Geopolymer Stabilizers. Advances in Civil Engineering, 2024(1), 6613742.‏
-Zhong, W. L., Zhang, Y. H., & Fan, L. F. (2023). High-ductile engineered geopolymer composites (EGC) prepared by calcined natural clay. Journal of Building Engineering, 63, 105456.
-Zhou, Y., et al. (2020). Carbide slag-based geopolymers: Synthesis, properties and applications. Materials & Design, 195, 108998.
Journal of Transportation Research
Volume 23, Issue 3
Summer 2026
Pages 141-154